comments

.vscode/settings.json

@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+{
+  "files.associations": {
+    "system_error": "cpp",
+    "xlocale": "cpp"
+  }
+}

README.md

@@ -12,15 +12,16 @@ Example Languages:
 Lessons:
 
 - [instanciating objects, accessing attributes and methods](./lessons/Instances.md)
+- [creating a class](./lessons/Classes.md)
+- [constructors](./lessons/Constructors.md)
+- [encapsulation](./lessons/Encapsulation.md)
+- [inheritance](./lessons/Inheritance.md)
+- [properties](./lessons/Properties.md)
+- [polymorphism](./lessons/Polymorphism.md)
 
 Work in progress:
 
-- creating a class
-- use attributes or functions from a function within an object
-- constructors
-- encapsulation
-- getter / setter / property
-- inheritance
-- polymorphism
 - virtual classes
 - interfaces
+- Factories
+- Generics

cpp/Instances.md

@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+# C++ Example
+
+## Language Specific
+
+c++ is almost identical to java in this example. The only difference here is
+that c++ doesn't require the object to be initialized with the keyword 'new'.
+
+Relevant Files:
+
+- [main.cpp](./classes/main.cpp)

cpp/Polymorphism.md

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+# Polymorphism
+
+Relevant files:
+
+- [main.cpp](./inheritance/main.cpp)

cpp/classes/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+# Classes in C++
+
+In c++ classes are defined using a header file and the implementation in a
+regular .cpp file. Explanations to the structure can be found in the files
+themselves
+
+## Relevant files
+
+- [car.h](./car.h)
+- [car.cpp](./car.cpp)

cpp/classes/car.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+// include the header file
+#include "car.h"
+
+// include necessary libraries and namespaces
+#include <iostream>
+#include <string>
+using namespace std;
+
+// define the implementation for car.print_info()
+void car::print_info()
+{
+  cout << "Car Information:" << endl;
+  // fields that are defined in the header file can just be used like normal variables here
+  cout << "- manufacturer: " << manufacturer << endl;
+  cout << "- model: " << model << endl;
+}
+
+/*
+
+That's everything for the .cpp file. 
+Since fields don't have an implementation and are already defined in the header file, they can be left out here.
+
+*/

cpp/classes/car.h

@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+// #pragma once is usually included in header files to make sure they are only loaded once
+// it's a simpler version of include guards, which are necessary to prevent conflicts
+#pragma once
+/*
+
+in case #pragma once is not supported by your compiler you'll need more basic include guards
+in this case it would be
+#ifndef car_h
+#define car_h
+
+...class contents
+
+#endif
+
+*/
+
+// including a necessary library and namespace to work with strings
+#include <string>
+using namespace std;
+
+// define the class
+class car
+{
+  // define the visibility of the following fields and methods
+  // in this case everything is public since visibility is a topic in future lessons
+  public:
+    // define two fields, manufacturer and model
+    std::string manufacturer;
+    std::string model;
+
+    // define a method that will print out information
+    void print_info();
+};
+
+/*
+
+That completes the header file, as you can see, there are no implementations in here.
+That's because they will be added in the car.cpp file.
+
+*/

cpp/constructors/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+# Constructors in C++
+
+## Relevant files
+
+- [car.h](./car.h)
+- [car.cpp](./car.cpp)
+- [main.cpp](./main.cpp)

cpp/constructors/car.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+// include the header file
+#include "car.h"
+
+// include necessary libraries and namespaces
+#include <iostream>
+#include <string>
+using namespace std;
+
+// define the implementation for car.print_info()
+void car::print_info()
+{
+  cout << "Car Information:" << endl;
+  // fields that are defined in the header file can just be used like normal variables here
+  cout << "- manufacturer: " << manufacturer << endl;
+  cout << "- model: " << model << endl;
+}
+
+car::car(string manufacturer, string model) {
+  // set manufacturer of the current object to the given manufacturer
+  this->manufacturer = manufacturer;
+  // set model of the current object to the given model
+  this->model = model;
+}

cpp/constructors/car.h

@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+#pragma once
+
+// including a necessary library and namespace to work with strings
+#include <string>
+using namespace std;
+
+// define the class
+class car
+{
+  private:
+    // define two fields, manufacturer and model
+    // this time as private to make the data only settable through the constructor or other local functions
+    std::string manufacturer;
+    std::string model;
+
+  public:
+    // define the constructor, taking manufacturer and model as parameters
+    car(std::string manufacturer, std::string model);
+
+    // define a method that will print out information
+    void print_info();
+};

cpp/constructors/main.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+#include "car.h"
+#include <cstring>
+
+int main() {
+  // create a new car and store it in the variable 'a'
+  // The constructor requires manufacturer and model to be specified.
+  car a("Benz", "Velo");
+
+  // do the same for a second car
+  car b("Ford", "Model T");
+
+  // use a function of the car class to print out the information
+  a.print_info();
+  b.print_info();
+}

cpp/inheritance/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+# Inheritance
+
+c++ also allows to inherit from multiple base classes at once, but that is a
+little to complicated for this lesson.
+
+Relevant files:
+
+- [animal.h](./animal.h)
+- [animal.cpp](./animal.cpp)
+- [cat.h](./cat.h)
+- [cat.cpp](./cat.cpp)
+- [dog.h](./dog.h)
+- [dog.cpp](./dog.cpp)

cpp/inheritance/animal.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+#include "animal.h"
+#include <iostream>
+#include <string>
+
+animal::animal(std::string name) {
+  this->name = name;
+}
+
+void animal::make_sound() {
+  cout << name << ":" << endl;
+}

cpp/inheritance/animal.h

@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include <string>
+using namespace std;
+
+class animal
+{
+  public:
+    std::string name;
+    // define make_sound as virtual to allow overriding in subclasses
+    virtual void make_sound();
+    animal(std::string name);
+};

cpp/inheritance/cat.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+#include "cat.h"
+
+#include <iostream>
+#include <string>
+
+void cat::make_sound() {
+  // call the base class function first
+  animal::make_sound();
+
+  // add additional functionality
+  cout << "meow" << endl;
+}

cpp/inheritance/cat.h

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include <string>
+// include the animal header
+#include "animal.h"
+using namespace std;
+
+// make the class inherit from animal
+class cat: public animal
+{
+  // include the animal constructor
+  using animal::animal;
+  public:
+    // override the make_sound function
+    void make_sound() override;
+};

cpp/inheritance/dog.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+#include "dog.h"
+
+#include <iostream>
+#include <string>
+
+void dog::make_sound() {
+  // implement own functionality
+  cout << "doggo " << name << " says:" << endl;
+  cout << "woof!" << endl;
+}

cpp/inheritance/dog.h

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+#pragma once
+
+#include <string>
+// include the animal header
+#include "animal.h"
+using namespace std;
+
+// make the class inherit from animal
+class dog: public animal
+{
+  // include the animal constructor
+  using animal::animal;
+  public:
+    // override the make_sound function
+    void make_sound() override;
+};

cpp/inheritance/main.cpp

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+#include "animal.h"
+#include "cat.h"
+#include "dog.h"
+
+#include <string>
+
+int main() {
+  // because cat and dog are subclasses of animal, they can be stored in an array of animals
+  animal * animals[2] = {
+    new dog("buster"),
+    new cat("mittens")
+  };
+
+  for (animal * a : animals)
+    // when calling the make_sound function, the implementation of the actual class gets called (in this case cat or dog)
+    a->make_sound();
+}

cpp/instances/README.md

@@ -1,11 +0,0 @@
-# C++ Example
-
-## Language Specific
-
-c++ is almost identical to java in this example. 
-The only difference here is that c++ doesn't require the object
-to be initialized with the keyword 'new'.
-
-Relevant Files:
-
-- [main.cpp](./main.cpp)

cpp/instances/car.cpp

@@ -1,20 +0,0 @@
-/*
-
-Basic Car class
-just here to make the demonstration in the main file possible
-explanation of the code here will be given in later lessons
-
-*/
-
-#include "car.h"
-#include <iostream>
-#include <string>
-
-using namespace std;
-
-void car::print_info()
-{
-  cout << "Car Information:" << endl;
-  cout << "- manufacturer: " << manufacturer << endl;
-  cout << "- model: " << model << endl;
-}

cpp/instances/car.h

@@ -1,20 +0,0 @@
-/*
-
-Basic Car class
-just here to make the demonstration in the main file possible
-explanation of the code here will be given in later lessons
-
-*/
-
-#pragma once
-#include <string>
-
-using namespace std;
-
-class car
-{
-  public:
-    std::string manufacturer;
-    std::string model;
-    void print_info();
-};

java/Instances.md

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+# Java Example
+
+Relevant Files:
+
+- [main.java](./classes/main.java)

java/Polymorphism.md

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+# Polymorphism
+
+Relevant files
+
+- [Program.java](./inheritance/Program.java)

java/classes/Car.java

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+/**
+ * this class is also declared with the public keyword to make it accessible
+ * outside of the current file
+ */
+public class Car {
+
+  // define the fields
+  public String model = "";
+  public String manufacturer = "";
+
+  // create the method print_info()
+  public void print_info() {
+    System.out.println("Car Information:");
+    /**
+     * To access fields of the current object the this keyword is used. It is
+     * possible to omit that keyword, but it's recommended to be used anyways.
+     */
+    System.out.println("- manufacturer: " + this.manufacturer);
+    System.out.println("- model: " + this.model);
+  }
+}

java/classes/README.md

@@ -2,4 +2,4 @@
 
 Relevant Files:
 
-- [main.java](./main.java)
+- [Car.java](./Car.java)

java/constructors/Car.java

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+public class Car {
+
+  // define the fields as private to prevent outside classes from accessing them
+  // access restriction will be a topic in the next lesson
+  private String model = "";
+  private String manufacturer = "";
+
+  // define the constructor
+  // in java a constructor is basically a function without return type named exactly like the class
+  public Car(String manufacturer, String model) {
+    // set manufacturer of the current object to the given manufacturer
+    this.manufacturer = manufacturer;
+    // set model of the current object to the given model
+    this.model = model;
+  }
+
+  // create the method print_info()
+  public void print_info() {
+    System.out.println("Car Information:");
+    System.out.println("- manufacturer: " + this.manufacturer);
+    System.out.println("- model: " + this.model);
+  }
+}

java/constructors/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+# Java example
+
+Relevant files:
+
+- [main.java](./main.java)
+- [Car.java](./Car.java)

java/constructors/main.java

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+public class main {
+  public static void main(String[] args) {
+    // create a new car and store it in the variable 'a'
+    // the constructor requires manufacturer and model to be specified
+    Car a = new Car("Benz", "Velo");
+
+    // do the same for a second car
+    Car b = new Car("Ford", "Model T");
+
+    // use a function of the car class to print out the information
+    a.print_info();
+    b.print_info();
+  }
+}

java/inheritance/Animal.java

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+public class Animal {
+  public String name;
+
+  public Animal(String name) {
+    this.name = name;
+  }
+
+  public void make_sound() {
+    System.out.println(this.name + ":");
+  }
+}

java/inheritance/Cat.java

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+// make the class cat inherit from Animal
+public class Cat extends Animal {
+  // java requires an explicit constructor when the supertype awaits parameters in the constructor
+  public Cat(String name) {
+    // call supertype constructor
+    super(name);
+  }
+
+  // override make_sound
+  public void make_sound() {
+    // optional: call the parent class function
+    super.make_sound();
+
+    // add additional functionality
+    System.out.println("meow");
+  }
+}

java/inheritance/Dog.java

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+public class Dog extends Animal {
+  // java requires an explicit constructor when the supertype awaits parameters in the constructor
+  public Dog(String name) {
+    // call supertype constructor
+    super(name);
+  }
+
+  // override the method make_sound
+  public void make_sound() {
+    // implement own functionality
+    System.out.println("doggo " + this.name + " says:");
+    System.out.println("woof!");
+  }
+}

java/inheritance/Program.java

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+public class Program {
+  public static void main(String[] args) {
+    // because cat and dog are subclasses of animal, they can be stored in an array of animals
+    Animal[] animals = { 
+      new Dog("buster"), 
+      new Cat("mittens") 
+    };
+
+    for (Animal a : animals) {
+      // when calling the make_sound function, the implementation of the actual class gets called (in this case cat or dog)
+      a.make_sound();
+    }
+  }
+}

java/inheritance/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+# Inheritance
+
+Relevant files:
+
+- [Animal.java](./Animal.java)
+- [Cat.java](./Cat.java)
+- [Dog.java](./Dog.java)

java/instances/Car.java

@@ -1,18 +0,0 @@
-/*
-
-Basic Car class
-just here to make the demonstration in the main file possible
-explanation of the code here will be given in later lessons
-
-*/
-
-public class Car {
-  public String model = "";
-  public String manufacturer = "";
-
-  public void print_info() {
-    System.out.println("Car Information:");
-    System.out.println("- manufacturer: " + this.manufacturer);
-    System.out.println("- model: " + this.model);
-  }
-}

lessons/Classes.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+# Creating Classes
+
+This lesson is going to use the same code from last time to explain the class
+structure itself.
+
+Since the example languages can have quite different styles of class
+declaration, I will just give a basic explanation here and then discuss every
+language in detail in their own description file.
+
+Classes are blueprints for the objects you create. You define how the object
+will look like and more importantly for the computer how much space it will use
+in memory.
+
+The main parts of a class are fields and methods. One for storing data and one
+for processing that data. Fields are placed at the top of the class and look
+like general variable declarations. Methods can take in arguments and also use
+the fields declared in the class. They can modify data in the object or just
+return some data to the caller.
+
+## Code examples and language specific explanations
+
+- [Java](../java/classes/README.md)
+- [Rust](../rust/classes/README.md)
+- [C++](../cpp/classes/README.md)
+- [JavaScript (using TypeScript)](../typescript/classes/README.md)

lessons/Constructors.md

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+# Constructors
+
+Constructors are a way to give data to an object right when it gets created. The
+object can also run functions on that data during construction.
+
+Constructors should only be used to initialize data which the object needs to
+function.
+
+## Code examples and language specific explanations
+
+- [Java](../java/constructors/README.md)
+- [Rust](../rust/Constructors.md)
+- [C++](../cpp/constructors/README.md)
+- [JavaScript (using TypeScript)](../typescript/constructors/README.md)

lessons/Encapsulation.md

@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+# Encapsulation
+
+Encapsulation is a simple lesson, this one is not gonna need any code examples.
+
+There are typically 3 keywords you need for encapsulation: private, protected
+and public.
+
+## Private
+
+Private methods and fields are only acessible from within the same class, they
+can't be read or written from outside.
+
+## Protected
+
+Protected is just like private, but descendant classes can access them.
+
+## Public
+
+Public is accessible from anywhere.
+
+## The static modifier
+
+Static is another one of those keywords, although it doesn't really control
+access to fields and methods. Anything with the static keyword can be used
+without an instance of the class. That means you can directly access with with
+Class.property instead of creating an instance of that class first. This is used
+for example in java for the main method, since it needs to be accessible without
+running any of the programs code first.
+
+Encapsulation is not a safety feature, it's only to make clear, which properties
+should be used by others. Methods like reflection and directly reading/writing
+memory can still access private or protected properties.

lessons/Inheritance.md

@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+# Inheritance
+
+Inheritance is useful to minimize code duplicates and generalize types in base
+classes.
+
+A Class can inherit all public and protected functions and fields from a base
+class and add its own or override existing ones. Private fields and functions
+still exist in the base class, but can't be acessed from the extending class.
+
+## Examples
+
+- [Java](../java/inheritance/README.md)
+- [Rust](../rust/Inheritance.md)
+- [C++](../cpp/inheritance/README.md)
+- [JavaScript (using TypeScript)](../typescript/inheritance/README.md)

lessons/Instances.md

@@ -7,10 +7,10 @@ Objects are generally used to keep data logically grouped and also make it easy
 to perform actions on them without having to account for all the logic at the
 time of using those functions.
 
-As an example I have created a Car class. This is probably going to be the
+As an example I have created a Car class. This is probably going to be the main
-main class used in all further lessons, since it has a lot of room for more data
+class used in all further lessons, since it has a lot of room for more data and
-and functions to add except for manufacturer, model and the function print_info
+functions to add except for manufacturer, model and the function print_info in
-in this example.
+this example.
 
 ```java
 /*
@@ -47,7 +47,8 @@ a.print_info();
 b.print_info();
 ```
 
-The above example code together with the car class will create the following output:
+The above example code together with the car class will create the following
+output:
 
 ```text
 Car Information:
@@ -64,7 +65,7 @@ repository :)
 
 ## Examples
 
-- [Java](../java/instances/README.md)
+- [Java](../java/Instances.md)
-- [Rust](../rust/instances/README.md)
+- [Rust](../rust/Instances.md)
-- [C++](../cpp/instances/README.md)
+- [C++](../cpp/Instances.md)
-- [JavaScript (using TypeScript)](../typescript/instances/README.md)
+- [JavaScript (using TypeScript)](../typescript/Instances.md)

lessons/Polymorphism.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+# Polymorphism
+
+Polymorphism is the ability to treat subclasses like their base classes, for
+example passing cat, which extends animal to a function that expects an animal
+as parameter. or storing objects of different types that all extend a common
+class in an array of that common type.
+
+You lose acess to the properties of the subclass, but you can still access the
+base class like usual. When the subclass overrides behaviour of the base class,
+the overridden functionality in the subclass is still called.
+
+You can regain access to properties of the subclass with casting, but you have
+to make sure that the object is actually an instance of that class or you might
+run into runtime errors.
+
+- [Java](../java/Polymorphism.md)
+- [Rust](../rust/Inheritance.md)
+- [C++](../cpp/Polymorphism.md)
+- [JavaScript (using TypeScript)](../typescript/Polymorphism.md)

lessons/Properties.md

@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+# Properties
+
+Properties are a way to restrict read/write access to a field and to add
+additional verifications, computations or function calls to accessing a field.
+
+To define a property you need one private field that stores your data and the
+getter/setter for it. If you don't want it to be readable or writable, you can
+leave out either of the accessor functions.
+
+None of the languages featured here have a full implementation of properties.
+Languages like c# and Delphi do though.
+
+Delphi has the simplest syntax for properties I've seen so far.
+
+```pas
+  // this property will read from the field FFoo and write using the function set_foo
+  property Foo read FFoo write set_foo;
+```
+
+C# is a bit more complicated, but still better than the languages here
+
+```cs
+  public string Foo
+  {
+    get => _foo;
+    set {
+      _foo = do_something(value);
+    }
+  }
+```
+
+## Typescript
+
+Typescript allows a somewhat property implementation. In the class itself you
+define getter and setter functions using the get and set keywords
+
+```ts
+public get foo(): string {
+  return this._foo;
+}
+
+public set foo(val: string): void {
+  this._foo = do_something(val);
+}
+```
+
+From the outside, the property can be read and written like in c# and Delphi,
+just like working with a variable.
+
+## C++, Java and Rust
+
+Those languages don't provide a property syntax at all, instead you have to
+create public functions like set_foo and get_foo to replace them.
+
+## Additional note to rust
+
+Properties don't exist in rust either. But replacing them with getters and
+setters is also discouraged. Quoting from a reddit post
+`Expose behavior, not state`. That means you should present functions to outside
+viewers and not your plain data. An object should be able to do all its intended
+functions itself without having an outside observer read or write its data.

rust/Constructors.md

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+# Constructors in rust
+
+Rust is a special case for constructors. The language itself is already
+different from most other languages in structure, especially for object oriented
+programming.
+
+Simply said, there are no constructors in rust. When you create an object, you
+have to initialize all data immediately and by yourself.
+
+You can look into the classes or instances examples to see how object
+construction is done in rust.
+
+- [main.rs](./classes/src/main.rs)
+- [car.rs](./classes/src/car.rs)

rust/Inheritance.md

@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+# Inheritance and Polymorphism
+
+Rust does not allow extending classes. Instead the base class is stored as a
+field in the extending class. Polymorphism can then be achieved by passing the
+field instead of the whole object to a function. Although casting back to the
+advanced class or overriding functions is not possible.

rust/Instances.md

@@ -3,8 +3,9 @@
 ## Language specific
 
 - Rust doesn't use the 'new' keyword
-- Classes in Rust require all attributes to be defined at all times, so you have to define all the data on creation.
+- Classes in Rust require all attributes to be defined at all times, so you have
+  to define all the data on creation.
 
 Relevant Files
 
-- [main.rs](./src/main.rs)
+- [main.rs](./classes/src/main.rs)

rust/classes/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+# Classes in Rust
+
+Rust doesn't have classes like Java or other typical c style languages. Instead
+there are Structs and Traits.
+
+Structs are responsible for storing data and nothing else. Traits define
+functions that can be used.
+
+## Relevant Files
+
+- [car.rs](./src/car.rs)

rust/classes/src/car.rs

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+/*
+ * Define the trait Information that will contain the function print_info()
+ */
+pub trait Information {
+  // define the function, &self is an argument that will be autofilled
+  // when running the function and it will reference the current object
+  fn print_info(&self);
+}
+
+/*
+ * Define the struct Car, which will hold all the necessary information 
+ */
+pub struct Car {
+  pub manufacturer: String,
+  pub model: String
+}
+
+/*
+ * Implementing the trait Information for the struct Car
+ */
+impl Information for Car {
+  fn print_info(&self) {
+    println!("Car Information:");
+    println!("- manufacturer: {}", self.manufacturer);
+    println!("- model: {}", self.model);
+  }
+}

rust/instances/src/car.rs

@@ -1,24 +0,0 @@
-/* 
-
-Basic Car class
-just here to make the demonstration in the main file possible
-explanation of the code here will be given in later lessons
-
-*/
-
-pub trait Information {
-  fn print_info(&self);
-}
-
-pub struct Car {
-  pub manufacturer: String,
-  pub model: String
-}
-
-impl Information for Car {
-  fn print_info(&self) {
-    println!("Car Information:");
-    println!("- manufacturer: {}", self.manufacturer);
-    println!("- model: {}", self.model);
-  }
-}

typescript/Instances.md

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+# Typescript Example
+
+Relevant Files
+
+- [index.ts](./classes/index.ts)

typescript/Polymorphism.md

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+# Polymorphism
+
+Relevant files
+
+- [index.ts](./inheritance/index.ts)

typescript/classes/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+# Typescript Example
+
+## Relevant Files
+
+- [car.ts](./car.ts)

typescript/classes/car.ts

@@ -1,15 +1,12 @@
-/* 
+/**
-
+ * the class is defined with the export keyword to make it usable outside of the current file
-Basic Car class
+ */
-just here to make the demonstration in the main file possible
-explanation of the code here will be given in later lessons
-
-*/
-
 export class Car {
+  // define the fields
   manufacturer: string = '';
   model: string = '';
 
+  // define the method print_info
   print_info() {
     console.log('Car Information:');
     console.log(`- manufacturer: ${this.manufacturer}`);

typescript/constructors/README.md

@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 # Typescript Example
 
-Relevant Files
+## Relevant Files
 
 - [index.ts](./index.ts)
+- [car.ts](./car.ts)

typescript/constructors/car.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+/**
+ * the class is defined with the export keyword to make it usable outside of the current file
+ */
+export class Car {
+  // define the fields
+  // setting them to private to prevent access from outside
+  private manufacturer: string = '';
+  private model: string = '';
+
+  // in typescript constructors are defined with the keyword constructor
+  public constructor(manufacturer: string, model: string) {
+    // set manufacturer and model of the current object to the given parameters
+    this.manufacturer = manufacturer;
+    this.model = model;
+  }
+
+  // define the method print_info
+  print_info() {
+    console.log('Car Information:');
+    console.log(`- manufacturer: ${this.manufacturer}`);
+    console.log(`- model: ${this.model}`);
+  }
+}

typescript/constructors/index.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+import {Car} from './car'
+
+// create a new car and store it in the variable 'a'
+// the constructor requires the parameters for model and manufacturer
+const a = new Car('Benz','Velo');
+
+// do the same for a second car
+const b = new Car('Ford','Model T');
+
+// use a function of the car class to print out the information
+a.print_info();
+b.print_info();

typescript/constructors/package.json

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+{
+  "name": "ts-oop",
+  "version": "1.0.0",
+  "description": "",
+  "main": "index.js",
+  "scripts": {
+    "test": "echo \"Error: no test specified\" && exit 1"
+  },
+  "author": "",
+  "license": "ISC"
+}

typescript/constructors/tsconfig.json

@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+{
+  "compilerOptions": {
+    /* Basic Options */
+    // "incremental": true,                   /* Enable incremental compilation */
+    "target": "es5",                          /* Specify ECMAScript target version: 'ES3' (default), 'ES5', 'ES2015', 'ES2016', 'ES2017', 'ES2018', 'ES2019', 'ES2020', or 'ESNEXT'. */
+    "module": "commonjs",                     /* Specify module code generation: 'none', 'commonjs', 'amd', 'system', 'umd', 'es2015', 'es2020', or 'ESNext'. */
+    // "lib": [],                             /* Specify library files to be included in the compilation. */
+    // "allowJs": true,                       /* Allow javascript files to be compiled. */
+    // "checkJs": true,                       /* Report errors in .js files. */
+    // "jsx": "preserve",                     /* Specify JSX code generation: 'preserve', 'react-native', or 'react'. */
+    // "declaration": true,                   /* Generates corresponding '.d.ts' file. */
+    // "declarationMap": true,                /* Generates a sourcemap for each corresponding '.d.ts' file. */
+    // "sourceMap": true,                     /* Generates corresponding '.map' file. */
+    // "outFile": "./dist",                       /* Concatenate and emit output to single file. */
+    "outDir": "./dist",                        /* Redirect output structure to the directory. */
+    // "rootDir": "./",                       /* Specify the root directory of input files. Use to control the output directory structure with --outDir. */
+    // "composite": true,                     /* Enable project compilation */
+    // "tsBuildInfoFile": "./",               /* Specify file to store incremental compilation information */
+    // "removeComments": true,                /* Do not emit comments to output. */
+    // "noEmit": true,                        /* Do not emit outputs. */
+    // "importHelpers": true,                 /* Import emit helpers from 'tslib'. */
+    // "downlevelIteration": true,            /* Provide full support for iterables in 'for-of', spread, and destructuring when targeting 'ES5' or 'ES3'. */
+    // "isolatedModules": true,               /* Transpile each file as a separate module (similar to 'ts.transpileModule'). */
+
+    /* Strict Type-Checking Options */
+    "strict": true,                           /* Enable all strict type-checking options. */
+    // "noImplicitAny": true,                 /* Raise error on expressions and declarations with an implied 'any' type. */
+    // "strictNullChecks": true,              /* Enable strict null checks. */
+    // "strictFunctionTypes": true,           /* Enable strict checking of function types. */
+    // "strictBindCallApply": true,           /* Enable strict 'bind', 'call', and 'apply' methods on functions. */
+    // "strictPropertyInitialization": true,  /* Enable strict checking of property initialization in classes. */
+    // "noImplicitThis": true,                /* Raise error on 'this' expressions with an implied 'any' type. */
+    // "alwaysStrict": true,                  /* Parse in strict mode and emit "use strict" for each source file. */
+
+    /* Additional Checks */
+    // "noUnusedLocals": true,                /* Report errors on unused locals. */
+    // "noUnusedParameters": true,            /* Report errors on unused parameters. */
+    // "noImplicitReturns": true,             /* Report error when not all code paths in function return a value. */
+    // "noFallthroughCasesInSwitch": true,    /* Report errors for fallthrough cases in switch statement. */
+
+    /* Module Resolution Options */
+    // "moduleResolution": "node",            /* Specify module resolution strategy: 'node' (Node.js) or 'classic' (TypeScript pre-1.6). */
+    // "baseUrl": "./",                       /* Base directory to resolve non-absolute module names. */
+    // "paths": {},                           /* A series of entries which re-map imports to lookup locations relative to the 'baseUrl'. */
+    // "rootDirs": [],                        /* List of root folders whose combined content represents the structure of the project at runtime. */
+    // "typeRoots": [],                       /* List of folders to include type definitions from. */
+    // "types": [],                           /* Type declaration files to be included in compilation. */
+    // "allowSyntheticDefaultImports": true,  /* Allow default imports from modules with no default export. This does not affect code emit, just typechecking. */
+    "esModuleInterop": true,                  /* Enables emit interoperability between CommonJS and ES Modules via creation of namespace objects for all imports. Implies 'allowSyntheticDefaultImports'. */
+    // "preserveSymlinks": true,              /* Do not resolve the real path of symlinks. */
+    // "allowUmdGlobalAccess": true,          /* Allow accessing UMD globals from modules. */
+
+    /* Source Map Options */
+    // "sourceRoot": "",                      /* Specify the location where debugger should locate TypeScript files instead of source locations. */
+    // "mapRoot": "",                         /* Specify the location where debugger should locate map files instead of generated locations. */
+    // "inlineSourceMap": true,               /* Emit a single file with source maps instead of having a separate file. */
+    // "inlineSources": true,                 /* Emit the source alongside the sourcemaps within a single file; requires '--inlineSourceMap' or '--sourceMap' to be set. */
+
+    /* Experimental Options */
+    // "experimentalDecorators": true,        /* Enables experimental support for ES7 decorators. */
+    // "emitDecoratorMetadata": true,         /* Enables experimental support for emitting type metadata for decorators. */
+
+    /* Advanced Options */
+    "forceConsistentCasingInFileNames": true  /* Disallow inconsistently-cased references to the same file. */
+  }
+}

typescript/inheritance/README.md

@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+# Inheritance
+
+Relevant files:
+
+- [animal.ts](./animal.ts)
+- [cat.ts](./cat.ts)
+- [dog.ts](./dog.ts)

typescript/inheritance/animal.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+export class Animal {
+  public name: string;
+
+  public constructor(name: string) {
+    this.name = name;
+  }
+
+  public make_sound() {
+    console.log(`${this.name}:`);
+  }
+}

typescript/inheritance/cat.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+import {Animal} from './animal';
+
+// make the class cat inherit from Animal
+export class Cat extends Animal {
+  // override make_sound
+  public make_sound() {
+    // optional: call the parent class function
+    super.make_sound();
+
+    // add additional functionality
+    console.log('meow');
+  }
+}

typescript/inheritance/dog.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+import {Animal} from './animal';
+
+export class Dog extends Animal {
+
+  // override the method make_sound
+  public make_sound() {
+    // implement own functionality
+    console.log(`doggo ${this.name} says:`);
+    console.log('woof!');
+  }
+}

typescript/inheritance/index.ts

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+import { Dog } from "./dog";
+import { Cat } from "./cat";
+import { Animal } from "./animal";
+
+// because cat and dog are subclasses of animal, they can be stored in an array of animals
+const animals: Animal[] = [
+  new Dog('buster'),
+  new Cat('mittens')
+]
+
+for (const a of animals) {
+  // when calling the make_sound function, the implementation of the actual class gets called (in this case cat or dog)
+  a.make_sound();
+}

typescript/inheritance/package.json

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+{
+  "name": "ts-oop",
+  "version": "1.0.0",
+  "description": "",
+  "main": "index.js",
+  "scripts": {
+    "test": "echo \"Error: no test specified\" && exit 1"
+  },
+  "author": "",
+  "license": "ISC"
+}

typescript/inheritance/tsconfig.json

@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+{
+  "compilerOptions": {
+    /* Basic Options */
+    // "incremental": true,                   /* Enable incremental compilation */
+    "target": "es5",                          /* Specify ECMAScript target version: 'ES3' (default), 'ES5', 'ES2015', 'ES2016', 'ES2017', 'ES2018', 'ES2019', 'ES2020', or 'ESNEXT'. */
+    "module": "commonjs",                     /* Specify module code generation: 'none', 'commonjs', 'amd', 'system', 'umd', 'es2015', 'es2020', or 'ESNext'. */
+    // "lib": [],                             /* Specify library files to be included in the compilation. */
+    // "allowJs": true,                       /* Allow javascript files to be compiled. */
+    // "checkJs": true,                       /* Report errors in .js files. */
+    // "jsx": "preserve",                     /* Specify JSX code generation: 'preserve', 'react-native', or 'react'. */
+    // "declaration": true,                   /* Generates corresponding '.d.ts' file. */
+    // "declarationMap": true,                /* Generates a sourcemap for each corresponding '.d.ts' file. */
+    // "sourceMap": true,                     /* Generates corresponding '.map' file. */
+    // "outFile": "./dist",                       /* Concatenate and emit output to single file. */
+    "outDir": "./dist",                        /* Redirect output structure to the directory. */
+    // "rootDir": "./",                       /* Specify the root directory of input files. Use to control the output directory structure with --outDir. */
+    // "composite": true,                     /* Enable project compilation */
+    // "tsBuildInfoFile": "./",               /* Specify file to store incremental compilation information */
+    // "removeComments": true,                /* Do not emit comments to output. */
+    // "noEmit": true,                        /* Do not emit outputs. */
+    // "importHelpers": true,                 /* Import emit helpers from 'tslib'. */
+    // "downlevelIteration": true,            /* Provide full support for iterables in 'for-of', spread, and destructuring when targeting 'ES5' or 'ES3'. */
+    // "isolatedModules": true,               /* Transpile each file as a separate module (similar to 'ts.transpileModule'). */
+
+    /* Strict Type-Checking Options */
+    "strict": true,                           /* Enable all strict type-checking options. */
+    // "noImplicitAny": true,                 /* Raise error on expressions and declarations with an implied 'any' type. */
+    // "strictNullChecks": true,              /* Enable strict null checks. */
+    // "strictFunctionTypes": true,           /* Enable strict checking of function types. */
+    // "strictBindCallApply": true,           /* Enable strict 'bind', 'call', and 'apply' methods on functions. */
+    // "strictPropertyInitialization": true,  /* Enable strict checking of property initialization in classes. */
+    // "noImplicitThis": true,                /* Raise error on 'this' expressions with an implied 'any' type. */
+    // "alwaysStrict": true,                  /* Parse in strict mode and emit "use strict" for each source file. */
+
+    /* Additional Checks */
+    // "noUnusedLocals": true,                /* Report errors on unused locals. */
+    // "noUnusedParameters": true,            /* Report errors on unused parameters. */
+    // "noImplicitReturns": true,             /* Report error when not all code paths in function return a value. */
+    // "noFallthroughCasesInSwitch": true,    /* Report errors for fallthrough cases in switch statement. */
+
+    /* Module Resolution Options */
+    // "moduleResolution": "node",            /* Specify module resolution strategy: 'node' (Node.js) or 'classic' (TypeScript pre-1.6). */
+    // "baseUrl": "./",                       /* Base directory to resolve non-absolute module names. */
+    // "paths": {},                           /* A series of entries which re-map imports to lookup locations relative to the 'baseUrl'. */
+    // "rootDirs": [],                        /* List of root folders whose combined content represents the structure of the project at runtime. */
+    // "typeRoots": [],                       /* List of folders to include type definitions from. */
+    // "types": [],                           /* Type declaration files to be included in compilation. */
+    // "allowSyntheticDefaultImports": true,  /* Allow default imports from modules with no default export. This does not affect code emit, just typechecking. */
+    "esModuleInterop": true,                  /* Enables emit interoperability between CommonJS and ES Modules via creation of namespace objects for all imports. Implies 'allowSyntheticDefaultImports'. */
+    // "preserveSymlinks": true,              /* Do not resolve the real path of symlinks. */
+    // "allowUmdGlobalAccess": true,          /* Allow accessing UMD globals from modules. */
+
+    /* Source Map Options */
+    // "sourceRoot": "",                      /* Specify the location where debugger should locate TypeScript files instead of source locations. */
+    // "mapRoot": "",                         /* Specify the location where debugger should locate map files instead of generated locations. */
+    // "inlineSourceMap": true,               /* Emit a single file with source maps instead of having a separate file. */
+    // "inlineSources": true,                 /* Emit the source alongside the sourcemaps within a single file; requires '--inlineSourceMap' or '--sourceMap' to be set. */
+
+    /* Experimental Options */
+    // "experimentalDecorators": true,        /* Enables experimental support for ES7 decorators. */
+    // "emitDecoratorMetadata": true,         /* Enables experimental support for emitting type metadata for decorators. */
+
+    /* Advanced Options */
+    "forceConsistentCasingInFileNames": true  /* Disallow inconsistently-cased references to the same file. */
+  }
+}